Preventing and treating diarrhoea (caused by rotavirus/coronavirus/cryptosporidium) in pre-weaned calves

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‘Prevention is better than cure’ for diarrhoea. This involves ensuring optimal hygiene at calving and in calf accommodation, regularly removing soiled bedding and steam cleaning, disinfecting and leaving calf pens empty, dry and in sunlight to rest between individuals/batches of calves. It is also important to clean feeding equipment with hot water and detergent between each feed. Depending on the bugs present on a farm, it is worth considering vaccination in adult cows to prevent the transmission of diseases like rotavirus to calves. 

When calves have diarrhoea, it is crucial to keep them hydrated and fed, as demonstrated in this video Optimising calf health – Managing Cryptosporidosis  

 

This farmer continues to feed milk as this provides the calf with energy, which supports their immune system in fighting disease. They also emphasize the importance of providing oral rehydration solutions to prevent dehydration, which can be purchased or a homemade solution can be used. This farmer combines glucose, salt, bicarbonate of soda, and a small amount of potassium chloride in a solution to provide calves with the necessary electrolytes when dehydrated. The imbalance in electrolytes caused by fluid loss from diarrhoea also causes acidosis, so the farmer provides a couple of tablespoons of bicarbonate of soda in the milk feeds to help combat this. 

Use of Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAID) helps to reduce fever and symptoms caused by inflammation so that calves feel better and continue to drink. Taking faecal samples to test for what is causing the diarrhoea so that the most effective treatment can be selected is key. These principles have led to this farmer reducing their calf mortality from 8% to zero and only using antimicrobials occasionally. 

Health management and welfare of young dairy animals – impact on antibiotic use

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Good husbandry practices are an important contributor to animal health on the farm. Young dairy animals that are cared for appropriately are in a better state to combat their ailments, thus reducing need for antibiotics. At the heart of all these challenges is the overall benefit of keeping calves feeling well.  The International Dairy Federation has developed a set of health recommendations regarding the welfare of young dairy animals to minimise the use of antimicrobials. Calving areas should have high standards of hygiene, be sheltered, and have appropriate bedding. An appropriate birthing plan should consider issues such as choice of sire; safe birthing facilities; and regular checking of animals to ensure prompt, experienced help is available if needed. Newborn dairy animals must receive adequate colostrum, both quantity and quality. The frequency of inspection of stock will depend on the circumstances and management systems. More than one daily inspection is particularly important in the case of animals close to giving birth, newborn, and newly weaned calves. If disbudding is performed, should be done before 2 months of age and follow appropriate birthing and weaning practices. Calves should not be offered for sale until they are sufficiently hardy to be transported. Adequate body weight and dry navel are good indicators. Appropriate transport conditions stipulated in national welfare regulations or codes of practice should be followed. 

Preventing streptococcal infections 

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Disease Prevention > Biosecurity > Resource > Preventing Streptococcal infections

There are several management measures that can be taken towards preventing Streptococcal infections. Biosecurity rules designed to prevent the introduction of germs like Streptococcus suis onto the farm must be respected. Important factors are: separating clean and dirty areas, biosecurity measures for persons entering the barn (washing hands, company clothing and boots), restricting the purchase of animals, and proper pest control.

Measures relating to spread of germs within the farm must also be observed. Piglet relocation must be limited and done via a pre-established protocol. If foster sows are used, these should be brought to the piglets (and not vice-versa). Working lines should be respected, from young to old (farrowing pen -> piglet battery -> fattening pigs). Between stables, it is important to wash hands and change overalls and boots. It is advisable to have different equipment per animal group, and to clean and disinfect this material regularly.

Around the time of farrowing, sows’ manure must be removed. Wound prevention is important: if castration is necessary, it must be done hygienically; and default teeth removal should be avoided. The floor in the farrowing pen should not be rough, to avoid injury.

Piglets should be weaned at minimum 25 days old; animals of the same litters should be kept together and piglets should be separated by age.

After weaning, access to fresh feed and drinking water and enough light must be ensured. The piglet house must be dry and sufficiently warm (temperature must be 5°C warmer than in the farrowing pen). Air flow in the battery should be checked prevent draught at the level of the lying areas.

Finally, cleaning and disinfection of the wards must follow a fixed protocol: dry cleaning, soaking, wet cleaning, drying, disinfection.

Optimal housing for healthy and less stressed dairy cattle

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Housing conditions influence the health of dairy cows and significantly reduce unexpected expenses. Sometimes minimal changes without too much expense can have a significant effect on the health, welfare and productivity of a dairy herd.

Photoperiod, remote surveillance, regular hygiene, cow comfort, heat stress prevention, and providing enrichment activities are practical actions that a farmer can take into account in providing optimal housing conditions for dairy cows. Also, there should be provided natural ventilation, sloping and non-slip floors, and a drinking front accessible to the entire population. Free stables offer the highest degree of satisfaction with welfare standards compared to tied stables.

Regardless of the accommodation system, the animals must have a comfortable and dry resting area. It is recommended to set up a dedicated accommodation space for different age groups and different operating facilities for veterinary care.

An important role is also played by the quality of the milking system chosen by the farmer. It is already known that automated milking facilities ensure the hygienic quality of milk, but not all small farms are able to invest in modern automated systems.

Last but not least, it must be kept in mind that regular shelter hygiene is essential for maintaining animal health and prevents unforeseen additional costs.

The influence of low temperature on dairy cows

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The low temperature below the thermal neutrality zone influences the comfort, health and production of dairy cows. The thermal comfort in the dairy cow depends on age, breed, feed intake, production, housing conditions, body fat deposits, skin condition and animal behavior. The function of thermoregulation becomes functional after the disappearance of the blood fructose, respectively after 6 days in calves.

The effect of the low temperature on the metabolic and physiological adaptation for dairy cows is identified by: increased consumption of dry matter, increased frequency of rumination, increased motility of the gastrointestinal tract, increases basal metabolic rate and energy requirement for the maintenance of vital functions, consumption of body oxygen, increases heart rate, increases adrenaline, cortisol and growth hormones, lipolysis, glycogenogenesis, glycogenolysis, increases production of liver glycogen. At the level of the body, peripheral vasoconstriction occurs, the reduction of heat loss through sweating and the increase of thermogenesis.

In the Holstein-Frisien breed, milk production remains constant in the range -10 … 12°C, while in Jersey breed the production gradually decreases to below + 5°C (explained by the low body weight).

In order to alleviate cold stress, the following are recommended: measures to prevent the freezing of water and water storage tanks, increasing the amount of feed, especially high-energy feed, preventing the increase of humidity inside the shelter, keeping the udder dry by using dry bedding.

The prevention and control of mastitis in sheep

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Mastitis is a major a problem in dairy farming, being a threat to animal health and welfare, production efficiency, and product quality. Mastitis is the result of contagious pathogens such as Streptococcus agalactiae, Mycoplasma spp. and Staphylococcus aureus, entering the mammary gland via teat canal, establishing an intramammary infection (IMI) and resulting in an inflammatory reaction. The disease can be in a clinical or subclinical form. 

In the subclinical form; milk production decreases, bacteria are present in the secretion, and composition is altered. Transmission of contagious mastitis pathogens mainly occurs during milking. Bedding is also very closely related to the bacteria exposure of the sheep since teats may be in direct contact with bedding materials which are a  primary source of mastitis causing pathogens. 

Tests have to be used to detect the presence of intra-mammary infections (IMI) either directly (culturing of the causative bacterium) of indirectly (by showing inflammatory response including an elevated somatic cell counts-SCC). 

A vaccination program is recommended to be included in the control of mastitis together with hygiene methods in sheep flocks. Mastitis treatment may contribute to reduced transmission of infection, but antimicrobial treatment of mastitis is not always successful. When treatment fails, removal of the infected animals from the flock, to prevent contagious transmission, may be necessary. 

The implementation of biosecurity measures such as: 

  1. good husbandry and milking practice with regular maintenance of the milking machine, and 
  2. use of post-milking teat disinfection  

can prevent introduction and transmission of mastitis in dairy ruminants, and consequently, reduce antibiotics usage. 

Optimal housing conditions for sheep

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Housing conditions, including ventilation rate, temperature, humidity, bedding and stocking density, are directly correlated with health, welfare and performance of dairy ruminants. Bedding materials contaminated with animals’ excreta (urine, dung, manure) have increased microbial growth, resulting in mastitis problems which increase somatic cell count in milk and umbilical cord infection in lambs.

Bedding conditions (moisture, temperature, pH), combined with limited ventilation rate also affect atmospheric ammonia concentration, which above a critical value (25 ppm) negatively affects animals health and welfare.

Gaseous ammonia is a severe irritant to the respiratory tract, capable of inhibiting the efficiency of the respiratory system at high levels. Slowed breathing, coughing, eye, mouth and nose irritation, poor weight gain, decreased resistance to diseases are some of the main symptoms of high ammonia concentration.

Production indices such as feed intake, feed conversion efficiency and productivity are all adversely affected in sheep and lambs by exposure to ammonia levels above 50 ppm.

Thus, an adequate ventilation rate in the animal house to renew the atmospheric air in it, keeping the moisture levels of bedding to minimum, more frequent replacement of bedding, and lower stocking densities are some of the main good practices to reduce the atmospheric ammonia level in animal houses. This helps to reduce the risk of infections and the use of antibiotics for their treatment.

Prevention of lameness in dairy herds

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Diseases of the hoof affect the welfare of the animal and require expensive treatments, with negative effects on milk production and reproductive activity. Studies conducted worldwide estimate that the prevalence of laminitis is between 20 and 30%. The dairy cow is expected to produce large amounts of milk, often leading to combined problems of the udder and hooves. The pressure on the cow’s body to produce milk determines a metabolic stress that decrease her immunity.

The main causes of diseases of the hoof in cows are: high stocking densities in the stable; poor quality of the floor on which the cow treads, frequent changes to grouping, excessive energy and protein from the feed ration, and genetics (the problems of the hooves are inherited through breeding).

Several measures can help to prevent hoof diseases in dairy cows, such as: maintaining good hygiene in the shelters, keeping the floors of the barn clean and dry; bathing the hoof of the cows before or after leaving the milking parlour and maintaining the same bath for a period of 2-3 days; periodic trimming, at least 2-3 times a year; feeding rations which are energy and protein balanced during the transition period; reducing the frequency of modifications to the feed rations; and ensuring feeds utilise good quality fats according to nutritional requirements.

In the dry period, the concentrated feed should be reduced, or even eliminated, from the ration, and after calving the inclusion of concentrates should gradually increase. The addition of Zinc to the ration has favourable effects on the skin and the hooves. Furthermore, animal breeding should be directed towards obtaining animals with strong bones, correct statutre and resistance to hoof diseases.