Sheep wellbeing – a holistic approach to management

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The wellbeing of livestock requires a holistic approach to management.  One UK Superfine Merino wool grower demonstrates excellent sheep husbandry that goes above and beyond minimum standards.  

Firstly, biosecurity – keeping a closed flock, breeding all replacements on farm and strict biosecurity measures for any farm visitor (i.e., vets/shearers/hauliers). The flock are certified Scrapie–free and Maedi Visna accredited, which demands a better price for the wool but this poses challenges finding breeding animals of equal status.  

The sheep are housed in any wet weather limiting damage to the fleece, which is the farm’s main product. The sheds are large, airy, with plenty of bedding and space in the pens, and even toys for the sheep to interact and play with when housed. The opportunity to play and space to socialise with (or avoid) certain flock members are important aspects to sheep wellbeing.  

The flock is of high genetic merit and the farmer uses embryo transfer (ET) to maximise the genetic potential and performance of her sheep. They cope well with the steep land and have little issue with their feet – there is not even any detectable footrot on farm. This is attributed to not buying in stock and not trimming feet or footbathing. To ensure their wellbeing, natural mating still occurs alongside artificial mating, which recognises the need for rams to mate. 

To facilitate correct dosing when using anthelmintics, the farmer makes use of a weigh crush that is built into a race and handling system. Here she can automatically identify individuals by electronic ear tags, record weights and administer medicines. The handling system reduces stress for workers and sheep. Handling the flock calmly, quietly and with compassion are key elements to good stockperson-ship.  

Disease management on a dairy farm: Testing, Vaccinating, Culling, and Keeping a Closed Herd

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Managing and preventing disease on a dairy farm is a continuous effort. A UK farmer shares his key strategies for optimizing his herd’s health in this video Optimising herd health – Managing disease  

The first key measure is to run a closed herd – no cattle are brought onto the farm, not even bulls. This is even more important in this part of England due to endemic Bovine Tuberculosis (TB). Using farm software, the farmer can mark out cows that have had an Inconclusive Result (IR) for TB and ensure they are not bred from and do not stay on the farm long, potentially spreading disease.  

Leptospirosis – a zoonotic disease that can infect humans – has also been an issue in the past so all adult cows and heifers are vaccinated for this every February before turnout. Another infectious disease that affects many dairy farms in Europe is Bovine Viral Diarrhoea virus (BVD). After 2 years of BVD testing calves through the Tag and Test system and blood testing heifers, this farm is now on the national BVD eradication scheme and registered as free from BVD but continuously monitoring via bulk milk tank tests.  They do not vaccinate against BVD currently, but care is taken to keep a barrier between their cattle and neighboring cattle due to BVD outbreaks on neighboring farms. The final disease that this farmer is acting upon is Johnes. After a recent clinical case (tip of the iceberg!), this farm has been more vigilant to Johnes and test the whole herd twice yearly. Affected cows are culled out but are often the poor performing animals anyway showing more lameness, high cell counts or poor fertility. 

Best practice recommendations regarding biosecurity and boars

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On many breeding farms, a search boar is used for good oestrus stimulation in the sows. However, this activity also carries risks. 

Direct contact between animals is the most effective way to transmit disease. With the oestrus stimulation the boar walks in front of and/or behind the sows and direct contact is possible. It is therefore important that the boar does not transmit disease to the sows and gilts. In general, it is advisable to buy animals from a farm that has at least the same health status, but preferably higher. These farms are free of a number of diseases and this reduces the chance of disease introduction. When an animal is purchased, it must be placed in quarantine upon arrival. The incubation period of a disease (the time between infection and the appearance of the first symptoms) determines the quarantine period. In general, a minimum quarantine period of four weeks is advised, but it is safer to apply a longer period, e.g. six to eight weeks. In addition to the prevention of disease introduction, the newly purchased animals can also adapt to the farm during the quarantine period and receive the necessary vaccinations (adaptation period). It is advised to administer the same vaccinations to boars and sows.  

In order to keep the boar sufficiently active, mating can be allowed occasionally. However, sperm can also be a risk for disease introduction. This also applies when new genetics are introduced to the farm by artificial insemination.  

Conclusions: 

  1. Buy animals from a farm with the same or higher health status. 
  1. When purchasing animals, maintain a quarantine period of at least four weeks 
  1. Vaccinate the boar together with the sows 

Best practice recommendations regarding cleaning and disinfection

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A thorough cleaning and disinfection protocol is needed to control infectious diseases. Hygiene is equally important for keeping your animals healthy. A proper cleaning and disinfection protocol will reduce the infection pressure. A clean area provides the ideal conditions for healthy animals to live and grow. 

Ideally, a cleaning and disinfection protocol consists of seven steps. It only starts after the removal of animals. 

  1. Dry cleaning

Organic material (faeces, dust, soil) present in the stables/houses should be removed as much as possible. If this step is not performed well, the other steps will already be jeopardized. 

  1. Soaking of all surfaces

Soaking of the surfaces with detergent will loosen the remaining dirt. 

  1. High-pressure cleaning

All foam from the previous step will be removed by cleaning with water under high pressure. Start from the top of the building and work your way down. Don’t forget drinkers and feed troughs. 

  1. Drying

Let the stable/house dry out completely before moving on to the disinfection step. Otherwise, the disinfectant will be diluted and thus less effective. 

  1. Disinfection

Disinfection will further reduce the load of infectious agents. The instructions of the manufacturer must be followed carefully. 

  1. Drying

Make sure the buildings are completely dry before allowing animals to enter. This will ensure the animals cannot come into contact with remaining pools of disinfectant.  

  1. Efficacy testing

Finally, in order to check whether your hard work has paid off, test the efficacy of your procedure by sampling different surfaces. 

 

It is important to perform the steps mentioned above in all animal houses! 

Best practice recommendations regarding entrance control

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Every person entering the farm, including the farmer and his/her staff, should take precautionary measures, as they can carry pathogens onto the farm. All unnecessary visitors should be kept out of the stables and away from the animals. Visitors should adhere to the following measures: 

  1. Park your vehicle as far as possible from the animal housing facilities, on the dedicated parking area. When there is no parking area, leave your vehicle on the public road. 
  2. Never enter the animal housing facilities without informing the farmer/responsible person. 
  3. Before entering the animal facilities:
    • Sign the visitors’ register.  
    • Remove your footwear and overclothing.  
    • Wash and disinfect your hands and/or wear disposable gloves.  
    • Proceed to the clean zone of the hygiene lock (the side where the animals are present). Showering may be obligatory.  
    • Put on farm-specific and clean coveralls/clothing and footwear. Whenever a farm does not have specific clothing or footwear, put on a disposable coverall and overshoes.  
  1. While being in the animal housing facilities, do not touch animals unless necessary.
  2. Ideally, between different houses or animal groups, you should change clothing and footwear andwash and disinfect your hands.
  3. At the end of your farm visit: 
    • Remove farm-specific footwear and clean it before placing it back.  
    • Remove farm-specific clothing and put it into a laundry bin. 
    • Enter the dirty part of the hygiene lock (you may have to shower first).  
    • Wash and disinfect your hands.  
    • Put your own clothes and shoes back on.  

Whenever these measures are followed thoroughly, no additional animal-free contact period is required. However, this can still be imposed by the farmer/government. 

Carcass disposal using an exchangeable storage system

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Disease Prevention > Biosecurity > Resource > Carcass disposal

 

Carcass disposal is an important aspect of external biosecurity. A way to achieve strong external biosecurity is by using the ‘clean-dirty area’ principle (clean area: farm buildings and zone in between; dirty area ‘outside’). Another division into zones consists of a green zone (low risk: the farm buildings), an orange zone (medium risk: the area directly around the farm buildings) and a red zone (high risk: public road, land which is not under own management).

The correct procedure for carcass disposal should avoid contaminating the clean area of farm buildings. For example, the carcass collection service must remain in the red zone and not enter the farm site. This can be achieved by placing the collection point for the carcass container next to the public road. Storing carcasses before collection at a point near the farm buildings means the red zone doesn’t have to be entered when a cadaver has to be stored. Furthermore, the collection frequency can be reduced by storing carcasses refrigerated.

By creating a double storage, the full container can be exchanged with the empty container. In this system, the storage next to the farm buildings has a cooling system; the storage next to the public roads has not. The day the carcass collection service arrives, the full (cooled) container is exchanged with the empty container next to the public road.

A strict separation between the clean and dirty road can be maintained, considerably reducing the risk pathogens being introduced. The refrigerated storage is also hygienic and the reduced odor emissions from cadavers is public-friendly.

Biosecurity on a farrow-to-finish farm

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Disease Prevention > Biosecurity > Resource > Biosecurity on a Farrow-to-Finish farm

Prevention is better than cure, with this aim, Bart Debaerdemaecker had an external coach assessing his farms’ biosecurity and identified areas for improvement. Reducing the risk of diseases entering the farm (external biosecurity) and their spread within the farm (internal biosecurity) are two major factors that make antibiotic usage sometimes seem inevitable. However, targeted actions have the potential to reduce the need for antibiotics and thus reduce the risk of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. In the video and following text, Bart explains how he improved biosecurity on his farm with simple, low-cost measures.

To prevent the spread of pathogens between different age groups, he uses colour-coded material for each age group. Tools, clothing and footwear are compartment-specific and footwear and hands are frequently disinfected. In addition, he makes use of walking lines to avoid the spread of disease from the older animals to the younger ones. Bart always starts his work in the farrowing pens, proceeds to the weaned piglets, and then ends up in the finisher pig house. The newly purchased gilts, sick bay and cadaver storage are visited last.

A second measure is the use of a gate for a physical separation between the ‘clean’ and ‘dirty’ area. To get access to the farm, visitors need to ring the bell at the entrance gate and register. Furthermore, specific footwear to enter the ‘dirty’ area of the farm is provided at the entrance, and always remains outside the gate.

Another ingenious measure is the waiting zone for the pigs between the stable corridor and the loading bay, created with a sliding door from a horse stable. When the outside light is on, the transporter knows the animals are in the waiting zone and ready to load. This way the driver never enters the clean area.

Preventing streptococcal infections 

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Disease Prevention > Biosecurity > Resource > Preventing Streptococcal infections

There are several management measures that can be taken towards preventing Streptococcal infections. Biosecurity rules designed to prevent the introduction of germs like Streptococcus suis onto the farm must be respected. Important factors are: separating clean and dirty areas, biosecurity measures for persons entering the barn (washing hands, company clothing and boots), restricting the purchase of animals, and proper pest control.

Measures relating to spread of germs within the farm must also be observed. Piglet relocation must be limited and done via a pre-established protocol. If foster sows are used, these should be brought to the piglets (and not vice-versa). Working lines should be respected, from young to old (farrowing pen -> piglet battery -> fattening pigs). Between stables, it is important to wash hands and change overalls and boots. It is advisable to have different equipment per animal group, and to clean and disinfect this material regularly.

Around the time of farrowing, sows’ manure must be removed. Wound prevention is important: if castration is necessary, it must be done hygienically; and default teeth removal should be avoided. The floor in the farrowing pen should not be rough, to avoid injury.

Piglets should be weaned at minimum 25 days old; animals of the same litters should be kept together and piglets should be separated by age.

After weaning, access to fresh feed and drinking water and enough light must be ensured. The piglet house must be dry and sufficiently warm (temperature must be 5°C warmer than in the farrowing pen). Air flow in the battery should be checked prevent draught at the level of the lying areas.

Finally, cleaning and disinfection of the wards must follow a fixed protocol: dry cleaning, soaking, wet cleaning, drying, disinfection.

The 7 important and individual steps in the optimal cleaning and disinfection protocol for livestock barns 

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Cleaning and disinfection (C&D) of livestock barns between production cycles is crucial in achieving a good farm biosecurity. Optimal C&D takes 7 individual steps that need to be executed chronologically!

  1. Start with dry cleaning the barn to remove coarse manure, emptying feeders and waterlines, and removing finer dirt . The less organic material remains, the more efficient the C&D will be, saving product, water and time.
  2. In step 2 the barn is soaked first only with water and next with water and detergent for better dissolving of fats and dirt. Foam is to be preferred for its longer contact time, better visibility and effectiveness. Foam the barn from floor to ceiling upwards for longer contact time. Leave enough time for the foam to work on the dirt before the next step of rinsing with a high pressure washer between 50 and 120 bar.
  3. Rinse the barn from ceiling to floor downwards to prevent recontamination of the cleaned upper surfaces.
  4. Next, very important is step 4: drying before disinfection. Make sure to clear feeders and drinking cups from rinsing water and dry the floor. It is crucial to prevent dissolution of the disinfection product to ensure its efficacy!
  5. Disinfection in step 5 can be done in various ways: wet, thermal disinfection, foam, fumigation or combinations. Also all loose material, central corridors, technical and office rooms, clothing and footwear need C&D.
  6. Step 6 is drying of the disinfection solution. Rinse the animal feeders and drinkers to prevent the incoming animals to ingest any disinfection product.
  7. The last step, whilst very important is often overlooked: testing the efficacy of your C&D protocol which should not be limited to visual inspection but ideally involves taking bacteriological swabs to assess the pathogen load in the barn.

Buying a sheep without health hazards

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Firstly, one should avoid buying small batches of animals from different origins. Quarantine is always recommended when introducing new animals. It may not prevent all risks, but it can prevent the introduction of diseases such as scabies or footrot.

Indeed, scabies carriers can appear perfectly healthy on arrival if they are still in the incubation phase. To counteract this risk, some administer a suitable antiparasitic as soon as the animal arrives. The risk of introducing footrot on the farm makes it necessary to check the feet as soon as the animals arrive in order to avoid buying affected or doubtful animals.

Even if it is impossible to manage all risks, especially those related to abortive diseases such as Border Disease, Visna-Maedi or Johne’s disease, it is important to know the health status of the seller’s herd.

The mixture of animals from several origins in a new environment can also favour the accelerated emergence of diseases such as ecthyma, scabs on the feet, caseous abscesses (CLA), keratitis. These episodes are more painful when pregnant ewes are included due to the increased risk of abortions.

When buying ewe lambs or rams, it is recommended to buy animals with health guarantees and to give preference to animals qualified by the selection centres.