Bring out slurry and manure – but avoid spreading of pathogens

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Slurry and manure can contain pathogens. To avoid spreading of infectious diseases between farms or spreading of pathogens around your farm it is important to take precautions.
First, get an overview of the overall logistic – where are the traffic routes on the farm. Pay special attention to routes for transport of slurry and manure. Avoid using the same routes for the feeding trucks, both inside and outside. Always keep a good safety distance to the feed.

Sometimes the slurry tank or lagoon is placed in a way that the slurry tanker must cross the same route the feeding truck uses. In these cases, have a plan for cleaning up these crossings and make sure it is done. This is a way to minimize the risk of spreading pathogens.

When handling slurry and manure keep distance to the stables and animals to prevent exposing animals to pathogens.

The most optimal route for safe transport of slurry and manure might be a little longer, but it is worth it compared to the consequences of spreading diseases in your herd.

Avoid spill when filling the tanker and under transport of slurry and manure. When spillage occur, there is a risk that pathogens can be spread around the herd via footwear and vehicle tires contaminated with slurry or manure. Therefore, be careful when handling slurry and manure and implement good routines for fast cleaning when spillage accidentally occurs.

Slurry contaminated vehicles and equipment can also spread diseases between farms. Make sure that only clean and disinfected equipment enter your farm. If the vehicle and equipment is washed and disinfected on your premises, then do it in a place where washing water do not get close to stables, animals or feed. Spreading pathogens with aerosols during washing with high pressure is a serious hazard. Make sure that aerosols do not enter stables or feed.

Genomic selection for profit and antibiotic reduction

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It is easy to breed for production or type, but how can you breed to reduce antiobiotic use? Looking at current bull data the only relevent data is longevity, somatic cell count and perhaps condition score. Zoetis’ Genomic evaluation with CLARIFIED Plus (https://www.zoetisus.com/animal-genetics/dairy/clarifide/clarifide-plus.aspx) now includes specific health trait evaluations including mastitis, metritis, lameness, calf respiratory and cow respiratory. Ranking cows on their mastitis score alone shows that the top 25% of cows use 65% less antiobiotics than the bottom 25% which was an average of 1.28 fewer inter-mammary tubes per cow. It is never recommended to use single trait selection, so Clarified have developed a Dairy Wellness Profit (DWP) index which combines production, type, fertility, longevity and health traits. Analysis made based on the balanced DWP index still shows the top 25% of cows using 44% less antiobiotics for mastitis. DWP figures are only available on Jersey and Holstein bulls. Genetic gains can be made by just using the highest DWP bulls, but the greatest advance comes with genomic testing of females and exerting selection pressure on which females are bred from. Use of sexed semen can have a big effect in making more progress. Breeding for DWP not only reduces antibiotic use, but it is a selection tool that can have an important financial impact on a dairy by increasing lifetime milk production, milk per day of life, herdlife and expected profit per cow. Improvements can be expected in calf mortality, ketosis, displaced abomasums, milk fever and cystic ovaries.

Vaccination of calves for the reduction of the consumption of antibiotics

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Vaccines are very important tools to reduce antimicrobial use and thereby slow down the emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance. Vaccinations can also reduce production losses associated with disease and are therefore leading to more sustainable animal production. Poor biosecurity, animal regrouping or introduction of new animals to the herd might cause the appearance of previously unseen infectious diseases on the farm, therefore antibiotics sometimes are used to fight secondary or primary infectious agents. In order to reduce necessity of antibiotic use a well-organised prophylactic calf vaccination programme is advised. An effective vaccination protocol can be developed to fit most operations and management approaches.

The risk of mortality and morbidity in calves is highest during the first few weeks of life. The main causes of mortality change during the pre-weaning period: septicaemia is most likely to occur in neonatal calves (up to 28 days of age); diarrhoea in calves less than 30 days old, and bovine respiratory disease in dairy calves more than 30 days old. During this critical period, many farmers could consider vaccination and other preventive interventions to minimise the risk of diseases.

The decision of ‘if’ and ‘when’ to vaccinate and against what pathogen should always be done after consultation with the herd veterinarian. The veterinarian can determine the need for vaccination and the ability for vaccines to reduce the current health challenges on a farm. This includes a good knowledge of the herd health history, diagnostic sampling of animals, the disease challenges in the area, evaluation of specific risk factors and other management routines that might impact animal health e.g. colostrum management.

It is very important that vaccines are kept at the indicated temperature and it is vital that the manufacturer’s guidelines for injection and timing of vaccination are closely followed. Many management factors can limit the effectiveness of vaccination including inadequate nutrition, adverse environmental conditions or presence of parasites. Therefore, it is important that the animal is not suffering any undue stress, or nutritional deficiencies or clinical disease.

Most vaccines that are used for calves are made to be injected into muscle or subcutaneously, therefore sterile syringes and needles must be used in order to reduce iatrogenic spread of diseases. Ensure that the vaccines are transported and stored properly (often refrigeration is required). Vaccine preparation needs to be done with clean hands, and strictly according to producer instructions. Read the instructions on the package to make sure the correct dosage is given. Ideally use 16-18 gauge x 1.5-3 cm long needles. If using an automatic vaccination gun make sure it is sterilised and clean. Check the gun is calibrated and working correctly. Subcutaneously (SQ) this injection goes between the skin and muscle, but not into the muscle. It is the preferred method for protecting meat quality. Always use this method if it is an option given on the label. Intramuscular (IM) injection goes directly into the muscle. To minimize damage to meat, use the muscles in front of the shoulder.

Be sure to record: Date of treatment; Name, lot number and serial number of the product used; Route of administration and give boosters when required. Check calf health status after vaccination and if any unusual side effects are observed please report to your veterinarian.

Internal Biosecurity on Pig Breeding Farms

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Internal biosecurity is based on the measures implemented on a breeding farm with the purpose of reducing the chances of penetration/spread of already existing pathogens to animals or other sections of the facility.

The internal biosecurity plan of a pig breeding unit operates in four distinct sectors where the “all-in, all-out” principle must apply, general and specific hygiene rules must be followed and the spread of pathogens due to working staff must be prevented.

In the breeding sector, sows are prepared for artificial insemination within 4-6 days.

In the gestation sector, sows are accommodated in groups based on their gestation period until this reaches 114 days. Prior to the transfer, the pregnant females are dewormed and washed in order to prevent the spread of pathogens in the maternity ward.

In the maternity ward/sector, sows are housed individually in farrowing pens. In order to prevent the transfer of pathogens, the transfer of piglets from one pen to another is not recommended.

In the nursery sector, the transfer of piglets is completed around the age of 42 days and at a weight of 12-13 kg. Pigs are kept here until they reach an average weight of 25-30 kg. Each compartment of the nursery sector is simultaneously populated and depopulated.

Internal biosecurity measures are important for maintaining the health of the entire herd. They reduce the need for employing antibiotics and help lower the farm’s production costs.

HACCP based biosecurity plan for a laying hen farm

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The biosecurity plan is an important part of health control measures to protect the flocks and individual hens against pathogens.
The biosecurity plan based on the HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point) principles offers the best assurance that commercial egg industry flocks are protected against serious disease outbreaks.
That is also the best way to ensure the food safety of the egg production.
The basic procedures of the biosecurity plan include both aspects related to laying hens’ welfare conditions, bird health and aspects related to the food safety.
Another major issue is the the prevention of emergency diseases, as follow : Newcastle Disease virus (the highly virulent strains), avian Influenza, infectious bursal disease, and Salmonella spp. infections (Salmonella enteritidis).

The critical monitoring points identified are:

1. Entry of chicks (at 15-16 weeks of age), equipment, vehicles, people and feed into pullet farms
2. Entry of adult fowls, equipment, vehicles, people and feed into egg production farms
3. The presence of wild bird and rodent faeces in sheds or where hens and pullets range
4. Water sanitation on farms using surface water
5. Disposal systems for dead birds, reject eggs, litter and manure from the farm
6. The presence of non-poultry bird species, other poultry and other animals on the farm

Biosecurity measures on poultry farms

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Biosecurity is the major factor to have poultry health and a good poultry production and it is the most cost-effective means of disease control management .
Biosecurity is ensured on a poultry farm by implementing a set of organizational and technical measures in order to prevent the introduction, persistence and spread of pathogens, as well as in order to protect animal and public health.
The key objectives of a biosecurity plan for a poultry farm:

1. preventing the penetration of pathogens (exclusion of pathogens or external biosecurity)
2. reducing the penetration / spread of pathogens already existing among animals (biomanagement or internal biosecurity).
3. preventing the penetration / spread of pathogens existing in the farm to other non-infected farms / animals (e.g. biocontamination).
4. minimizing the incidence and spread of pathogens that impact the health of the population (zoonotic infections).

The biosecurity measures are as follows:

I. Defining biosecurity zone (the farm perimeter)
II. Functional sanitary filter for the employees, visitors, vehicles and all other entries
III. Visitor guidelines to be properly mentioned outside and inside the farm.
IV. Maintenance of the facilities used for housing, feeding and watering animals
V. Feed supply
VI. Transporting live animals to and from the farm
VII. Code of good practice and good hygiene practice (training of the employees)
VIII. Practice the technological principle “all full, all empty” at the hall level

Genomic selection

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Genomic selection is a modern tool used in animal breeding, based on information from tens of thousands of markers associated with genes that influence animal production. The advantage of using the study of DNA or genetic markers is that it is possible to know if an animal has genes in its genome that influence the development of a certain characteristic important for the production or health of the animal. Thus, it is possible to obtain: a significant increase in the selection intensity and of the selection precision; significant decrease in the value of the intergenerational interval, doubling the genetic progress that can be achieved with each generation.

Genomic selection can help breeders identify individuals with higher breeding values as early as possible. Genomic selection or molecular marker-assisted selection also helps us to quickly eliminate pathogenic genes or those that negatively influence economically important traits from the population.

Selection assisted by molecular markers also has the advantage of facilitating the very rapid introduction of an important gene or group of genes into the genome of a population, a procedure called gene introgression in the population, achievable in a maximum of 2-3 generations. An example of the use of introgression may be the bringing of the gene responsible for resistance to certain diseases from a natural donor breed to a breed with very good production.

Vaccination of in-calf cows and housing practices against calf scour (Neonatal calf diarrhea)

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Calf scour (Neonatal calf diarrhoea) is the most common cause of disease and death in calves during the pre-weaning period. Scour can be due to both infectious (e.g., viruses and bacteria) or non-infectious causes (such as poor nutrition). Symptoms are most often diarrhoea that might be green, yellow or grey in colour, weak animals, dehydrated animal (especially when very young) causing sunken-eyes, etc.

Good hygiene, colostrum provision and biosecurity are important for minimising the chances of an outbreak occurring, independent of the cause of scour. Calves are most at risk from infectious scour in the first 3-4 weeks of life and need a continuous source of protection. In collaboration with their herd veterinarians, farmers can vaccinate in-calf cows against calf diarrhoea a few weeks before calving, while increasing the quantities of colostrum given to the calves at birth. After doing this, cases of diarrhoea in the calves should usually drop.

In addition, it is important to segregate calves by age to prevent passing infectious agents from older calves to younger more vulnerable ones and to maintain clean, dry housing with good ventilation. For example, individual pens (which are easier to clean, transport and disinfect) could be used to rear these calves.

81 Evaluation of two communication strategies to improve udder health management (Research report – Jansen, 2010)

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Significant Impact Group(s): Pathogen management \ Managing sick animals \ Targeted use of antibiotics ; Biosecurity
Species targeted: Dairy;
Age: Adult;
Outcome Parameter(s): improve udder health management; incidence of clinical mastistis; bulk milk somatic cell count (BMSCC)
Summary: This study shows that communication strategies to change farmers’ management practices can be improved when both the aim of the strategy and farmers’ motivational differences to work on udder health are taken into account. When aiming at complex issues such as udder health, the traditional central route using educational tools seems to be effective in reaching the motivated farmers. In addition to the central route, the peripheral route can be applied to influence farmers’ behavior by including implicit persuasion techniques instead of arguments in campaigns. This route is especially effective for single management practices and when aiming at a less complicated message. To reach as many farmers as possible, both communication strategies should be used. The communication strategies described in this paper are examples of how management practices to control mastitis can be effectively communicated to farmers, which can be used in optimizing future programs to control and prevent diseases.
81 Research paper – Jansen – 2010 – Evaluation of two communication strategies to improve udder health management
Where to find the original material:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022030210715034; https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2009-2531
Country: NL

81 Research paper – Jansen – 2010 – Evaluation of two communication strategies to improve udder health management

Risk factors for ESBL-producing Escherichia coli on pig farms: A longitudinal study in the context of reduced use of antimicrobials (Research paper; Dohmen, 2017)

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Significant Impact Group(s): Prudent use AB \ Farmer ; Biosecurity
Species targeted: Pigs;
Age: Young; Adult;
Outcome Parameter(s): Presence of ESBL-E. coli; antimicrobial use; cephalosporin use at the farm
Summary: This study determined prevalence of ESBL-E. coli on pig farms and the effect of reducing veterinary antimicrobial use (AMU) and farm management practices on ESBL-E. coli occurrence on pig farms. During 2011 and 2013, 36 Dutch conventional pig farms participated in a longitudinal study (4 sampling times in 18 months). The number of farms with ESBL-E. coli carrying pigs decreased from 16 to 10 and the prevalence of ESBL-E. coli-positive pig samples halved from 27% to 13%.
The presence of ESBL-E. coli carrying pigs was not related to total AMU, but it was strongly determined by the presence or absence of cephalosporin use at the farm. Other farm management factors, related with improved biosecurity, were less frequently seen in ESBL-E. coli-positive farms (e.g. presence of a hygiene lock, pest control delivered by a professional). In conclusion, ESBL-E. coli prevalence decreased in pigs during 2011 and 2013 in the Netherlands.
54 Research paper – Dohmen – 2017 – Risk factors for ESBL-producing Escherichia coli on pig farms_A longitudinal study in the context of reduced use of antimicrobial
Where to find the original material:
http://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/359723/journal.pone.0174094.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y; https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0174094
Country: NL

54 Research paper – Dohmen – 2017 – Risk factors for ESBL-producing Escherichia coli on pig farms_A longitudinal study in the context of reduced use of antimicrobial