111 Prophylactic and metaphylactic antimicrobial use in Belgian fattening pig herds (Research paper; Callens, 2012)

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111 Research paper – Callens – 2012 – Prophylactic and metaphylactic antimicrobial use in Belgian fattening pig herds

111 Research paper
Prophylactic and metaphylactic antimicrobial use in Belgian fattening pig herds
by Callens, B., Persoons, D., Maes, D., Laanen, M., Postma, M., Boyen, F., Haesebrouck, F., Butaye, P., Catry, B. and J. Dewulf. 2012 Preventive Veterinary Medicine 106: 53-62
In Significant Impact Groups: AMU reduction strategies \ Monitoring and surveillance Antibiotic use
Species targeted: Pigs;
Age: Young; Adult;
Summary: The guidelines for prudent use of antimicrobials are not yet implemented in Belgium. Between January and October 2010 data antimicrobial use was collected retrospectively on 50 closed pig herds. An overall higher use of prophylactic antimicrobial group level therapy was recorded in 2010 compared to 2003. This shift was marked by a partial yet substantial replacement of older, orally administered compounds by new injectable long acting products. The most frequently used antimicrobials orally applied to groups of pigs were colistin (30.7%), amoxicillin (30.0%), trimethoprim-sulfonamides (13.1%), doxycycline (9.9%) and tylosin (8.1%). The most frequently applied injectable antimicrobials were tulathromycin (45.0%), long acting ceftiofur (40.1%) and long acting amoxicillin (8.4%). Injectable products were generally overdosed (79.5%), whereas oral treatments were often under dosed (47.3%). In conclusion, this study shows that preventive group treatment was applied in 98% of the visited herds and often includes the use of critically important and broad-spectrum antimicrobials.

Country: BE

108 Guidance on the Selection of Appropriate Indicators for Quantification of Antimicrobial Usage in Humans and Animals (Research paper; Collineau, 2016)

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108 Research paper – Collineau – 2016 – Guidance on the Selection of Appropriate Indicators for Quantification of Antimicrobial Usage in Humans and Animals

108 Research paper
Guidance on the Selection of Appropriate Indicators for Quantification of Antimicrobial Usage in Humans and Animals by Collineau, L., Belloc, C., Stärk, K.D., Hémonic, A., Postma, M., Dewulf, J. and C. Chauvin. 2016 Zoonoses and public health 64: 165-184
In Significant Impact Groups: AMU reduction strategies \ Monitoring and surveillance Antibiotic use
Species targeted: Pigs; Poultry; Dairy; Beef;
Summary: To quantify antimicrobial usage various types of measures are available. These are here referred to as indicators of antimicrobial use. These range from sales, deliveries or reimbursement data in human and veterinary medicine. Still, results can differ substantially depending on the method used. The best way to select the appropriate indicators of antimicrobial usage, is important to first determine the objective of the study. If the goal is compare groups (or populations), it is preferable to use standard parameters. However, to measure exposure it is better to use actual (non-standardized) parameters. There are several issues associated with the choice of indicators for antimicrobial use. These are further discussed in this article.

Where to find the original material: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/zph.12298; https://doi.org/10.1111/zph.12298

Country: FR

107 Impact of slurry and manure management on the degradation of antibiotics (Research paper; Levasseur, 2015)

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107 Research paper – Levasseur- 2015 – Impact of slurry and manure management on the degradation of antibiotics

107 Research paper
Impact of slurry and manure management on the degradation of antibiotics
by Levasseur, P. and A. Hémonic. 2015 Cahiers de l’IFIP 2: 27-48
In Significant Impact Groups: AMU reduction strategies \ Monitoring and surveillance Antibiotic use
Species targeted: Pigs; Poultry; Dairy; Beef; Sheep;
Age: Young; Adult; Different for different species;
Summary: Research shows that the antibiotics most often found in livestock manure are tetracyclines, sulphonamides, macrolides, quinolones and fluoroquinolones. These will later on end up and which end up in the environment. This paper reviews the ways in which antibiotics can be removed during the main possibilities of slurry management: from administration to the animal to the soil after spreading. Animals discharge 30–90% of administered antibiotics unchanged or as active metabolites. During storage, most antibiotics form complexes with soluble organic matter and remain fairly stable. After spreading, soil can have some protective effect. Treatment processes can remove antibiotics, especially composting. Wastewater treatment by activated sludge and anaerobic digestion can also reduce antibiotic contamination. In order to estimate the real risk of resistance, is is still necessary to link these results with the occurrence of resistant bacteria and genes in various compartments (livestock manure, water and soil).
Country: FR

Drinking water medication: beware of interference

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Medication should never replace good management, but sometimes a treatment is unavoidable. In poultry and pigs, medication is often administered via the drinking water. The water quality largely determines how successful the administration will be. The water composition influences the solubility and biological availability of the medication and can even have an influence on the efficacy. Hardness, pH, iron and cadmium levels are some important parameters that can interfere with the medication. This counts for medicines in general, but is of particular importance for antibiotics because partial inactivation of the antibiotic can cause antibiotic resistance. The following should be kept in mind when using antibiotic water medication:

Ampicillin/amoxicillin need a neutral to basic pH to dissolve well. They are sensitive to temperature swings and to the enzyme ‘beta lactamase’ that can be produced be bacteria present in the drinking water system (biofilm!).

Tetracycline’s are poorly soluble. Calcium in hard water forms complexes with tetracycline’s. These complexes are poorly absorbed in the digestive tract. Acidification of the water can improve the solubility as well as the absorption.

Sulphonamides can be captured by organic substances.

Most antibiotics are unstable in solution (e.g. amoxicillin solution: shelf life 6h). They should be administered in an appropriate volume of water so that the animals drink everything in time.

These examples illustrate the importance of water quality when administering antibiotics. For each specific antibiotic treatment via the water, the compatibility of the antibiotic with the drinking water (and water treatment products!) should be discussed with the advising veterinarian.

Methods to reduce iron and manganese levels at the drinking water source

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Besides hardness, iron is also an important cause of problems in the drinking water system. The danger doesn’t lie within the iron itself but in the unpleasant side-effects of its presence. Iron excess gives rise to discoloration of the water, scaling, pipe or nipple blockings, metal taste, promotion of biofilm etc. This affects animal health and can therefore indirectly increase antibiotic use. Manganese excess often comes along with iron excess and causes similar problems. Luckily there are several techniques to remove iron and manganese at the drinking water source:

De-ironing: This is an automatic technique that consists of two steps. 1) By aerating, the soluble iron (Fe2+) precipitates and becomes insoluble (Fe3+). These iron particles are then filtered out with a (sand) filter. Different variants of this technique are available, e.g., with an underground installation. The functioning of the system should be monitored regularly.

Ion exchange: a cation exchanger removes iron and manganese as well as calcium and magnesium from the water by exchanging them for sodium. This happens in column with a resin medium. Removing calcium and magnesium softens the water. This is an automatic technique but periodically, the resin medium needs to be regenerated.

Sedimentation basin: only works for moderate iron/manganese excess. The water flows slowly through an open basin. By periodically aerating the basin, iron and manganese precipitate and sink to the bottom, just as other suspended particles. This results in clear water.

Zeolite filter: zeolite is a rock that can be used as ion exchanger (same principle as above) or as filter. In the latter case, three steps are performed (filtration, regeneration, washing) to remove iron and manganese.

Prevention of (blue-green) algae in drinking water sources

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Algae and blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria) typically cause problems in summertime: they thrive in stagnant or slow flowing warm water with high levels of nutrients that is exposed to sunlight. Algae can make the water pH rise or cause blockages in the piping. But especially blue-green algae are a threat to animal health. When the layer of blooming algae starts to decompose, toxic substances are released. These toxins can cause a wide range of health problems, from mild to lethal. Consequently blue-green algae can indirectly promote unnecessary use of antibiotics.

Once algae have started to bloom, there is no way back. Prevention is the key to cope with algae. When drinking water supplies are stored in a basin, different techniques can be used to prevent algae growth.

Light shielding: this is the most efficient method as algae cannot survive without light. The water surface can be protected from light with a (floating) sail or if this is not possible, floating balls/hexagons. A regular check-up of the shielding is strongly recommended.

Aerating/stirring the water: This inhibits algae growth by increasing the oxygen levels in the water (aerating) and creating water flow (stirring).

Ultrasonic sound waves higher than 20kHz are an effective method to kill present algae and prevent their growth.

Certain water plants prevent algae growth by production of substances that prevent or slow down algae growth. Other plants compete with the algae for nutrients in the water, thus inhibiting algae growth.

Why and how to prevent biofilm formation in drinking water pipes

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A biofilm is a slimy layer sticking to the inside wall of the drinking water pipe that is created by the growth of microorganisms on mineral deposits or organic material. When the biofilm loosens or bacteria are released from it, problems such as reduced production, disease, decomposition / scavenging of water additives and a reduction in the effectiveness of medication can arise. Due to the presence of biofilm in the pipes, the bacterial pressure can rise incredibly between the water source and the drinking point! Moreover, biofilms can promote the development of antibiotic resistance. It’s important to focus on prevention of biofilm. Indeed, besides a poor bacteriological quality of the drinking water, biofilm can cause other problems such as blockage but also corrosion of the pipes. Furthermore, thick and tenacious biofilms will require high doses of strong biocides. This increases the risk of health problems due to biocide residues in the water. One hundred percent prevention is often not possible, but several measures can significantly slow down biofilm formation.

The piping material: polyethylene pipes are prone to biofilm formation whereas copper piping is less sensitive.

Bacteria love stagnant (warm) water: avoid dead ends in the piping and assure a good flow at all times.

Iron and manganese in the water promote biofilm formation. Check the DISARM best practice guide for water quality for methods to remove iron and manganese.

Regularly clean the pipes (see also DISARM best practice guide for water quality)

Some water treatments / additives (e.g., butyrate, acetic acid) can contribute significantly to the formation of biofilm or slime formation, depending on the water source.

Effective water vaccination: the importance of water quality

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Good vaccination schemes are an important part of good farm management. Vaccination prevents diseases (and secondary bacterial infections) and thus antibiotic use. Many live vaccines can be administered via the drinking water, whereas some need to be injected. Drinking water vaccination is very practical, but the efficacy is highly influenced by the water quality/composition. These important points concerning the drinking water should be kept in mind at all times:

Use water of high quality! Unwanted components can interfere with the vaccine. Unpalatable water can be detrimental because of lower water uptake. Check the DISARM Best Practice Guide for water quality for more information on how to evaluate and remediate water quality.

At least 48h before vaccination: cease all water treatments. In case of live bacterial vaccines (e.g., Salmonella, Mycoplasma): stop antibiotic treatments at least 7 days before AND after vaccination.

Flush the pipes thoroughly to remove all residues of cleaning and disinfection products. This is essential to avoid inactivation of the vaccine.

Add a water stabilizer that binds substances such as chlorine in tap water to avoid vaccine inactivation.

Check the DISARM best practice guide for vaccination protocols for more information on effective vaccination practices.

Source: N. Sleeckx, Drinkwatermedicatie, Proefbedrijf pluimveehouderij vzw, 2014.

How to ensure that good quality colostrum is fed?

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To control the colostrum management in a herd, it is important to make a system where the calves’ level of IgG is examined. This is done by a blood sample of the calf between 1-7 days after birth. A representative sample must be taken to assess the herd level. If more than 90% of the tested calves are above 10 g/l then the colostrum management is satisfactory. If a larger proportion is below 10 g/L, it is important to review all procedure to find possible optimization points. 

Quality, quantity, speed and hygiene are the parameters that are important to achieve a satisfactory IgG level in the calf. 

  • Quality: the colostrum quality is measured immediately after milking by a colostrometer or by a Brix meter. The goal must be that 90% is above 50 g/l, which corresponds to 22% on the Brix meter 
  • Quantity: to obtain adequate supply of immunuglobulins it requires 3-4 liters at first feeding 
  • Speed: the reason why it is important to add colostrum quickly after birth is due to the ability of the intestinal wall to absorb immunuglobulins decreases rapidly and after 24 hours the ability has disappeared. The goal is to give colostrum within the first 1-2 hours after birth 
  • Hygiene: it is possible to do hygiene checks on colostrum to see how hygiene procedures work while handling colostrum. A sample of the colostrum is taken just before the first feeding and then a germ count is done. There should be less than 100,000 CFU / ml in the colostrum. 

Keeping dairy cows and calf together – how to manage biosecurity and health

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Separation of cow and calf at birth has been common practice for decades. The interest in keeping cow and calf together for a longer time is increasing among both farmers and consumers. Before you start practicing this you must consider a few things first. Biosecurity is vital if you want to succeed.  

 

Uncover the risks 

Take a critical look at your farm – consult your veterinarian. Uncover the risks for introduction of new infectious diseases, but also the risk of spreading diseases already present at the farm. When you know the risk factors on your farm, you can take care of them. 

 

Small groups 

It is important to keep the cows and calves in smaller groups. Larger groups mean more options for contact between animals and a higher risk for spreading of diseases.  

 

Monitor colostrum quality and uptake 

Colostrum is critical for the newborn calf. You can not be sure that a calf that is only nursed by the cow gets enough colostrum. Up to 60 % of the calves will suffer to failure of passive transfer of antibodies. It is necessary to monitor both quality and amount of colostrum the calves ingest. Feeding the calf colostrum is a safe way to secure sufficient immunization. Always keep good quality colostrum in a colostrum bank, so you have colostrum to supply calves born from cows with little or to poor colostrum.  

 

Monitoring the calves  

Monitoring calf health is vital. Do not expect that the cow can do this job or that health monitoring is less time consuming when calves and cows are kept together. When calves are bucket fed twice daily, it is quite easy to monitor wellbeing of the calf, appetite and drinking speed. You do not get the same information if the cow is the caretaker. Therefore, the person responsible for monitoring the calves must look for the small signs of illness, so proper intervention can be carried out before it is too late.