The prevention and control of mastitis in sheep

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Mastitis is a major a problem in dairy farming, being a threat to animal health and welfare, production efficiency, and product quality. Mastitis is the result of contagious pathogens such as Streptococcus agalactiae, Mycoplasma spp. and Staphylococcus aureus, entering the mammary gland via teat canal, establishing an intramammary infection (IMI) and resulting in an inflammatory reaction. The disease can be in a clinical or subclinical form. 

In the subclinical form; milk production decreases, bacteria are present in the secretion, and composition is altered. Transmission of contagious mastitis pathogens mainly occurs during milking. Bedding is also very closely related to the bacteria exposure of the sheep since teats may be in direct contact with bedding materials which are a  primary source of mastitis causing pathogens. 

Tests have to be used to detect the presence of intra-mammary infections (IMI) either directly (culturing of the causative bacterium) of indirectly (by showing inflammatory response including an elevated somatic cell counts-SCC). 

A vaccination program is recommended to be included in the control of mastitis together with hygiene methods in sheep flocks. Mastitis treatment may contribute to reduced transmission of infection, but antimicrobial treatment of mastitis is not always successful. When treatment fails, removal of the infected animals from the flock, to prevent contagious transmission, may be necessary. 

The implementation of biosecurity measures such as: 

  1. good husbandry and milking practice with regular maintenance of the milking machine, and 
  2. use of post-milking teat disinfection  

can prevent introduction and transmission of mastitis in dairy ruminants, and consequently, reduce antibiotics usage. 

DISARM Model for Multi Actor Farm Health Planning

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One of DISARM’s key objectives is to promote structural animal health improvement on farms through establishing farm health teams consisting of a farmer, his herd veterinarian, and his feed – or other – advisor.

In this report you can learn about the different steps and methods we will apply during our case-studies where a farm team works together to develop a farm health plan.

DISARM Model for Multi Actor Farm Health Planning

WEBINAR: Principles of Biosecurity and Biocheck.UGent

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We thank Professor Jeroen Dewulf from Ghent University for sharing his expertise.
Here you can find out more about transmission routes, infection pressures and use of the BioCheck tool as a risk-based biosecurity scoring system for individual farms.

Principles of Biosecurity and use of BioCheck website: webinar by Jeroen Dewulf

Enterotoxemia in sheep and lambs

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Enterotoxemia is a frequently severe disease of small ruminants of all ages. It is caused by two strains of bacteria called Clostridium perfringens, type C and D. Type C principally produces the β-toxin, which most commonly kills lambs less than 2 weeks of age. A typical symptom of lambs that die from β-toxin is simply sudden death. Type D principally produces the ε-toxin which affects lambs older than 2 weeks of age, particularly those eating diets high in starch. Lambs exposed to high doses of ε-toxin also die very quickly. Fatalities occur particularly in non-vaccinated animals or in newborn lambs whose mother was not vaccinated.

Vaccination of ewes 3-4 weeks before lambing improves passive protection in lambs up to 12 weeks of age, whereas there is no benefit of vaccinating lambs before 6 weeks of age. Since the causative bacteria proliferate in the intestine in response to ingestion of abnormally high levels of starch, sugar, or protein, there are two alternatives:

  • to divide the daily allotment into as many small feedings as is feasible, or
  • to feed roughages such as hay before feeding these higher-risk feeds.

These good practices, vaccination and Smart feeding strategies, can prevent animal losses and improve their welfare. Prevention of enterotoxemia is far more likely to be successful than trying to treat the disease. Treatment of enterotoxemia may not be successful in severe cases.

Optimal housing conditions for sheep

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Housing conditions, including ventilation rate, temperature, humidity, bedding and stocking density, are directly correlated with health, welfare and performance of dairy ruminants. Bedding materials contaminated with animals’ excreta (urine, dung, manure) have increased microbial growth, resulting in mastitis problems which increase somatic cell count in milk and umbilical cord infection in lambs.

Bedding conditions (moisture, temperature, pH), combined with limited ventilation rate also affect atmospheric ammonia concentration, which above a critical value (25 ppm) negatively affects animals health and welfare.

Gaseous ammonia is a severe irritant to the respiratory tract, capable of inhibiting the efficiency of the respiratory system at high levels. Slowed breathing, coughing, eye, mouth and nose irritation, poor weight gain, decreased resistance to diseases are some of the main symptoms of high ammonia concentration.

Production indices such as feed intake, feed conversion efficiency and productivity are all adversely affected in sheep and lambs by exposure to ammonia levels above 50 ppm.

Thus, an adequate ventilation rate in the animal house to renew the atmospheric air in it, keeping the moisture levels of bedding to minimum, more frequent replacement of bedding, and lower stocking densities are some of the main good practices to reduce the atmospheric ammonia level in animal houses. This helps to reduce the risk of infections and the use of antibiotics for their treatment.

Umbilical cord healing

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The umbilical cord serves as a conduit for the blood supply between the foetus and the placenta throughout pregnancy, providing the necessary nutrients for the development of the foetus during intrauterine life. The cord ruptures during the birth process, leaving an umbilical stump that becomes a potential route for pathogen entry into the newly born calf or lamb, increasing the risk of omphalitis and septicemia.

Umbilical infection also reduces total body weight gain during the first 3 months of life. Preventive measures for umbilical infection encompass maternity pen hygiene, decreased residency of the newborn in the maternity pen, adequate colostrum management, and antiseptic umbilical cord care.

Careful and consistent umbilical cord care substantially decreases calf/lamb mortality. Appropriate antimicrobial solutions applied to umbilical cord within 30 min of birth are protective against umbilical cord infections.

Iodine is the most commonly used antiseptic compound in the dairy industry. The antiseptic properties begin to decrease approximately in 15 min after dipping, but remain evident for several hours.

Umbilical cord care, as a good practice at farm level, is very effective to promote health and welfare to newborn lambs and calves, which are less likely to need antibiotics for any possible infections.

Prevention of lameness in dairy herds

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Diseases of the hoof affect the welfare of the animal and require expensive treatments, with negative effects on milk production and reproductive activity. Studies conducted worldwide estimate that the prevalence of laminitis is between 20 and 30%. The dairy cow is expected to produce large amounts of milk, often leading to combined problems of the udder and hooves. The pressure on the cow’s body to produce milk determines a metabolic stress that decrease her immunity.

The main causes of diseases of the hoof in cows are: high stocking densities in the stable; poor quality of the floor on which the cow treads, frequent changes to grouping, excessive energy and protein from the feed ration, and genetics (the problems of the hooves are inherited through breeding).

Several measures can help to prevent hoof diseases in dairy cows, such as: maintaining good hygiene in the shelters, keeping the floors of the barn clean and dry; bathing the hoof of the cows before or after leaving the milking parlour and maintaining the same bath for a period of 2-3 days; periodic trimming, at least 2-3 times a year; feeding rations which are energy and protein balanced during the transition period; reducing the frequency of modifications to the feed rations; and ensuring feeds utilise good quality fats according to nutritional requirements.

In the dry period, the concentrated feed should be reduced, or even eliminated, from the ration, and after calving the inclusion of concentrates should gradually increase. The addition of Zinc to the ration has favourable effects on the skin and the hooves. Furthermore, animal breeding should be directed towards obtaining animals with strong bones, correct statutre and resistance to hoof diseases.

The transition period of the dairy cow

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The transition period is considered critical for the dairy cow and refers to the 3 weeks before calving and 3 weeks after calving. During this period the cow becomes vulnerable as physiological, metabolic and nutritional changes occur. This period can negatively influence the subsequent lactation of the cow, with implications on production and reproduction performance and implicitly on profitability. The manner in which this period is maintained are reflected in the frequency of postpartum disorders (milk fever, abomasum displacement, placental retention).

During the last three weeks of gestation, the cow’s body is under pressure from the rapid growth of the foetus, and from the synthesis of milk components for the subsequent lactation. Plasma insulin concentration decreases during the transition to the foetus and somatotropin increases rapidly between the end of pregnancy and the beginning of lactation.

At the beginning of lactation, the cows mobilize the body reserves (5-8% of the calving weight), the appetite is low and capricious (the ingesta is lower by 45%), the nutritional balance, especially the energy balance, is negative, the lactation curve is in ascension.

The main measures to support the transition period: grouping of cows (ante partum and post partum) in special areas (maternity); feeding balanced diet in terms of ionic (DCAD); maintaining good hygiene of the rest bed; ensuring optimal levels of carbohydrates, which stimulate propionate production; urinary pH monitoring (pH less than 5.8 leads to decreased feed intake and immune imbalances, pH over 7.2 leads to postpartum paraplegia and placenta retention).

Sieplo’s FEEDR

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A Dutch veal farmer feeds his 1,100 veal calves with the FEEDR, an intelligent feeding robot. This robot can monitor exactly what the needs of the individual animal are and can therefore deliver exactly enough feed. The robot feeds the animals small portions several times a day, instead of a large portion once. A major advantage of this is that the feed is always fresh. Consistently fresh feed ensures that the calves are healthier, thus reducing the use of antibiotics. The following are other advantages and disadvantages of the robot system.

Positives

+ Low labour requirement

+ Accurate feeding and higher feed intake (improved growth is an indicator of a healthier animal)

+ Better animal health (less use of antibiotics)

+ Little residual feed

+ Energy efficient

+ Lower costs for barn construction (narrow feeding alleys)

+ Little adaptation of existing stables required

+ No feed kitchen, roughage stays fresh longer (better for the health of the animal)

Negatives

– High purchase costs

– Can only process grass silage in chopped form

– Milk truck and bulk truck drivers sometimes find routing robot difficult.

The FEEDR can be used directly in almost all stables. It has been developed to provide pellets in raised troughs to white veal calves. For feeding larger quantities of roughage to sheep or rosé veal calves, adjustments have been made to the robot to allow the system to run smoothly.

Cleaning and disinfecting on poultry, pig and dairy farms

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Calving, lambing and farrowing are stressful events and potential risks for contaminating the environment livestock are kept in. Bacteria thrive in contaminated environments and can remain protected from routine cleaning under layers of grease and dirt found in sheds, stables and barns.

An animal’s pen should receive a deep, thorough clean AND disinfection regularly. In order to reach and remove all bacteria, it is necessary to clean (e.g. with a detergent) before the disinfection process (i.e. with an antibacterial) takes place. A bacterium under a layer of dirt is not possible to reach otherwise. By using foaming detergents, the protective layer of dirt or organic matter is ‘lifted’, which allows the bacteria to be reached improving the effect of the clean. Selecting a cleaning product for the conditions it is to be used in and allowing it to work for at least half an hour is good practice. A period of drying after cleaning also helps maximize the clean. Refer to the product instructions to ensure the disinfectant is applied at the correct concentration. Leave it on surfaces for the instructed time and then rinse to remove.

This cleaning and disinfection protocol keeps the environment that livestock are kept in as clean as possible. Germs such as bacteria are kept at low levels that do not pose a risk of infection and the use of antibiotics can be reduced.